The effects of intrinsic foot muscle strengthening interventions on balance, proprioception, and falls in adults over age 65 Background: Falls are the leading cause of injury in adults 65 years and older. While causes of falls are multifactorial, foot function plays a vital role. The intrinsic foot muscles (IFM), those that originate and insert within the foot, provide stability and sensory input important for balance. Weakness or disuse of the IFM in older adults can contribute to faulty foot and toe alignment, which have been cited as independent predictors of falls. Wearing minimally cushioned footwear or performing strengthening exercises that target the IFM may improve these muscles' strength, endurance, proprioceptive qualities, and foot/toe structure, which may improve functional mobility and balance in older adults, and thus, prevent falls. Purpose: The purpose of the proposed research is to analyze the effects of two IFM strengthening interventions (minimal footwear use or strengthening exercises) on IFM strength, proprioception, foot/toe structure, balance and functional mobility, and falls incidence in older adults. Design: Randomized control trial Methods: Adults ages > 65 years who can ambulate household distances with or without an assistive device will be invited to participate. Individuals with poor foot sensation, lower extremity amputation, injury or surgery to the lower extremities or lumbar spine in the previous 6 months, impaired cognitive ability to follow verbal and written instructions, or vestibular disorders will be excluded. Following informed consent and initial screening, participants will be randomly allocated to one of four intervention groups (n=120, n=30/group): 1) intrinsic foot muscle strengthening exercises 2) minimal footwear prescribed walking 3) intrinsic foot muscle strengthening exercises and minimal footwear prescribed walking 4) non-minimal footwear prescribed walking (control) Participants will be encouraged to perform interventions 5 days/week for 16 weeks. After an initial in-person instruction session, participants will have 1 follow-up meeting to review instructions, after which they will receive bimonthly phone calls as a reminder to adhere to the intervention and to record any falls and related details. Participants will be asked to record intervention performance, daily step count (measured by pedometer), and falls in provided diaries. Balance and functional mobility will be measured using the Mini-BesTest, proprioception will be measured using the Lower Extremity Position Test, foot and toe structure will be measured using navicular drop and valgus angle of the 1st metatarsophalangeal joint. Cross sectional area (cm2) of the abductor hallucis, flexor hallucis brevis, flexor digitorum brevis, and quadratus plantae muscles will be measured using ultrasound imaging. Measures regarding balance and functional mobility, proprioception, foot/toe structure, and muscle cross sectional area will occur at ...