This project will test how savanna ecosystems respond to the removal of invasive species. Invasive species are introduced from outside their natural range that rapidly expand across areas where they were introduced. Invasive species negatively affect the economy and can change ecosystems in undesirable ways. Because of these negative effects, many restoration efforts involve removing invasive species. The project will test if ecosystems are resilient and can return to their original state after invasive species are removed. This project will also examine how long it takes for ecosystems to return to their original state once invasive species are removed. Both questions will be answered by experiments done in central Kenya, where an invasive ant has displaced native ants that defend Acacia trees against elephants and other browsing mammals. In invaded areas, browsing on trees is common, transforming savanna woodlands into open landscapes with few trees. Through targeted removal of the invasive ant, the project will discover whether invaded areas can be returned to their original state. Removal of invasive ants may restore the partnership between trees and native ants and reduce browsing by elephants. Across much of East Africa, Acacia trees are critical to the bioeconomy because they provide food for black rhinoceros, giraffe, and other animals. These trees are also used for fuel by humans. This project provides an opportunity to answer important questions about ecosystem resi