Mountains are among the most important regions on Earth for both people and nature. They supply freshwater to cities and towns far beyond the mountains themselves, influence regional climate, and support nearly half of the world’s biodiversity hotspots while also sustaining about 12% of the global population. Mountain biodiversity also supports essential services such as food resources, medicinal discoveries, and livelihoods. Yet scientists still do not understand why some mountain regions host exceptional biological diversity, whereas others with similar environments do not. Without this knowledge, it is difficult to identify which areas are most valuable to protect, prioritize conservation investments, or anticipate how mountain ecosystems may change over time. This project will clarify how the physical formation of mountains over geologic timescales interacts with the behavior and adaptation of species to produce and maintain biodiversity. Results will provide key knowledge for long-term environmental planning and management of natural lands. This collaborative research will train undergraduate and graduate students, as well as a postdoctoral fellow, fostering a new generation of scientists fluent in evolutionary biology, bioinformatics, and geosciences. It will also create educational resources for K-12 students, develop hands-on learning experiences for families and local communities, and promote interdisciplinary collaboration through workshops and conference symposia t